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how to differentiate fever from covid fever

 Basics  of  Fever

    Fever  is  very  common  symptom  in  our  daily  pediatric  practice.  Several  studies  indicate  that  more than  40%  of  outdoor  patients  have  complaint  of  fever  &  daily  innumerable  phone  calls  for  the  practicing  pediatrician  are  due  to  fever.

·        Definition  of  fever

×          Fever  is  defined  as a  rectal  temperature    38 C  (100.4. F).

×          Our  body temperature  fluctuates  in  a  defined  normal  range  [(36.6  to  37.9.  C)  (97.9  to  100.2. F)  rectally].  The  highest  point  is  reached  at  early  evening  &  the  lowest  point  is  reached  in  the  morning.

×          The  range of  normal  temperature  is  broad,  35.5  to  37.7. C  (96 – 100. F).

·        Fever  should  always  be  measured  by  thermometer  &  documented.  Palpation  of  skin  by  hands  to  assess  body  temperature  is  widely  used  by  parents,  it  is  less  accurate  &  falsely  labels  children  as  having  fever.  To  consider  fever  with  warm  head  &  extremities  by parents  is  very  common.  It  should  be  confirmed  by  measuring  body  temperature  by  thermometer.

·        Measurement  of  Body  temperature:

×          The  measurement  of  body temperature  should  reflect  the core  temperature.  The  thermometer  should be  easy,  comfortable  to  use  &  give  rapid  results.  It  should  not  cause  cross  infection. It  should  not  be  influenced  by  environmental  temperature.  It  should  be  safe  &  cost – effective.  There  are  several  devices  available  at  present.

×          Available  different  thermometers

-        Mercury  clinical  thermometer is  not  recommended  due  to  possibility  of  mercury  poisoning  if  it  is  broken  accidentally

-        Digital  thermometer  is  widely  used  because  of  its  easy  use  &  safety.

-        Infrared  thermometer is  very  useful  to  screen  the  people  for  fever  without  touching  the  person.  It  is  safe  from cross  infection  point  of  view,  very  useful  in  epidemics  like  COVID – 19.

×          Axillary  temperature

-        Axilla  should  be  dry.

-        Keep  the  thermometer  in  axilla  with  the  bulb  of  the  thermometer  toward  apex  of  axilla,  the  elbow  is  flexed  &  the  arm  is  held  close  to  the  chest  wall.

-        Switch  on  the  thermometer  &  keep  the bulb  at  the  apex  of  dry  axilla  till  its  final  beep.

-        The  thermometer  should  be  cleaned  with  70% isopropyl  alcohol after  each  used,  dried  &  kept in  its container.

-        The  axillary  temperature  is  1C  less  than  the  rectal  temperature.

×          Oral  (sublingual)  temperature:

-        It  reflects  the  temperature  of  lingual  arteries.

-        This  method  can  be  used  in  children  >  5  years.

-        Te  oral  temperature is  0.5 – 1C  higher  than  axillary  temperature.

×          Rectal  temperature

-        Rectal  thermometer  is  different  from  clinical  thermometer.

-        Having  rounded,  bulbous  tip  &  low  reading  (30 – 40. C).

-        The  rectal  thermometer  should  be  cleaned  with  soap  &  water,  wiped  dry  &  then  used.

-        Water  based  jelly  or  lubricant  is  applied  on  the  tip  of  the  thermometer.

-        Put  the  baby  on  his  back  on  a  firm  surface.  Hold  the  baby’s  ankles  &  lift  both  the  legs.  Gently,  introduce  the  thermometer  in  the  rectum,  directing  its  tip  posteriorly  toward  the  back  upto  a  depth  of  2.5  cm.  Hold  the  thermometer  till  its  final  beep.

-        Due  to accidental  perforation  of rectum,  it  is not  routinely  recommended.

×          Tympanic  Thermometer:  The  degree  of  temperature  of  blood  supplying  to  tympanic    membrane  &  that  of  hypothalamus  are  very close  to  each  other.  Therefore,  it  is  the  ideal  location  for  core  temperature  estimation.  They measure  the  thermal  radiation  emitted  from the  tympanic  membrance  & the  ear  canal  &  are  called  Infrared  Radiation Emission  Detectors  (IRED).

×          Temporal  artery  thermometer:  It  reads  the  infrared  heat  released  by  the  temporal  artery,  which  runs  across  the  forehead  just  below  the  skin.  It  can  be  used  in  3 months  &  older  children.

 

Mechanism  of  fever

     Three  different  mechanisms  can  produce  fever:

·        Pyrogens

·        Heat  production  exceeding  heat  loss

·        Defective  heat  loss.

 

·        Pyrogens

     There  are  two  types  of  pyrogens,  Endogenous  pyrogens  &  Exogenous  pyrogens.

×          Endogenous  pyrogens

-        Endogenous  pyrogens  include  the  cytokines  interleukin  (IL) – 1  &  IL – 6,  tumor  necrosis  factor  (TNF) – α,  and  interferon  (IFN) – β  & IFN – γ. Stimulated  leucocytes  &  other  cells  produce  lipids  (PGE2)  that  also  serve  as  endogenous  pyrogens.  PGE2  attaches  to  the  prostaglandin  receptors  in  the  hypothalamus  to  produce  the  new  temperature  set  point.

-        Besides  infectious  diseases  &  drugs,  malignancy  &  inflammatory diseases  can  produce  fever  through  the  production  of  endogenous  pyrogens.

×          Exogenous  pyrogens

-        They  come  from  out side  the  body  &  consists  of  mainly  infectious  pathogens  &  drugs.  Microbes,  microbial  toxins  or  other  products  of  microbes  are  the  most  common exogenous  pyrogens,  which  stimulate  macrophages  &  other  cells  to  produce  endogenous  pyrogens.

-        Endotoxin  is  one  of  the  few  substances  that  directly  affect  thermoregulation  in  the  hypothalamus  as  well as  stimulate endogenous  pyrogens  release.

 

 

 

 

Mechanism  of  fever

 

Invading  exogenous  pyrogens

Endogenous  pyrognes

(Cytokines)

Act  on  thermosensitive  neurons

in  hypothalamus

Upgrade  the  set  point  via  prostaglandius

Increase  in  heat  production

(muscle  contractions  -  rigors)

&  decreasing  heat  loss

(vasoconstriction  -  chills)

Rise  in  body  temperature

Till  set  point

Fever

-        Many  drugs  can  cause  fever  & the  mechanism  for increasing  body  temperature  varies  with  the  class  of  drugs.

·        Heat  production  exceeding  heat  loss

    The  examples  include  salicylate  poisoning  &  malignant hyperthermia.

·        Defective  Heat  loss

     It  may  occur  in  children  with  ectodermal  dysplasia  &  severe  heat  exposure.

 

Types  of  Fever

     The  type  of  fever  can  provide  clues  to  the  underlying  etiology.  But  in  this  modern  time,  hardly  specific  pattern  of  fever  is  noted  due  to  self medication  (antipyretics)  by the  parents, misuse of  antipyretics  (use  of  irrational  drugs  &  irrational  combinations),  over  use  of  antimalarials  &  antibiotics  etc.  Still,  if  a  specific pattern  is  observed,  it  becomes  an  important  clue  for the  cause  of  fever.

·        Continuous/Persistent/Sustained  fever

    It  is  almost  same  degree  of  fever  through  a  mild  variation  of  less  than  0.5  C  (0.9.F).  It  is commonly  seen  in  bacterial  infections  like  enteric  fever.

·        Remittent  fever

     It  is  high  grade,  persistent  fever  &  variation  is  more  than  0.5.  C  (0.9F).

·        Intermittent  fever

     Intermittent  fever  is  characterized  by  febrile  periods  that  are  separated  by intervals of  normal  temperature.

×          Tertian  fever  is  type  of  relapsing  (intermittent  fever),  it  occus  on  1st  &  3rd  days.  Classical  example  of  tertian  fever  is  malaria  by  plasmodium  vivax.

×          Quartan  fever  occurs  on  1st  &  4th  day,  which  is  seen  in  a  case  of  malaria  by  plasmodium  malariae.

·        Hectic  fever

    Either  an intermittent  or  remittent  fever  is  considered  hectic  if  the  temperature  range  swings  widely  throughout  the  day,  with  a  difference  of  more  than  1.4. C  between the highest  &  lowest  temperatures.  It  is  considered  as  characteristic  of  an  abscess,  collection  of  pus  some  where  in  body.

·        Relapsing  fever

     This  type  of  intermittent  fever  that  spikes  up  again  after  days  or  weeks  of normal  temperatures.

·        Biphasic   fever

      Biphasic  fever  indicates  a  single  illness  with  2  distinct  periods  (camel  back  fever  pattern).  Biphasic  fever  is  characteristics  of  viral  fevers,  dengue  fever,  leptospirosis,  yellow fever  etc.

 

      Fever   is  a  symptom  &  not  disease.  The  presence  of  fever  indicates  inflammatory  process  in  body,  may  be  infective  or  non  -  infective.  Most  of  the  time,  fever  is  harmless,  but  may  be  an  initiation  of  some  serious  condition.

 

Why   fever  is  a  friend ?

×          Increases,  WBC  response.

×          Decreases  endotoxin  production  or  its  efficacy.

×          Activation  of  B  lymphocytes  (Humoral  immunity).

×          Activation of  T  lymphocytes  (cell  mediated  immunity).

×          Enhances  phagocytosis,  opsonization  &  complement  fixation.

Fever  is  beneficial  immune  response.

 

Red  Flag  conditions  Presenting  with  Fever

·        Altered  sensorium / Drowsiness / Irritability / Bulging  AF / Signs  of  meningeal  irritation  present  (CNS  infecetion).

·        Fever  in  <  3  months,  particularly  neonates.

·        Poor  perfusion  (impending  shock).

·        Increased  work  of  breathing.

·        Petechial / Purpura  spots  (DHF/Sepsis/Meningococcemia).

·        Faucial  membrane  (Diphtheria).

·        Immune  compromised  child.

·        Severe  Acute  Malnutrition.

·        Abdominal  guarding / rigidity  (surgical  abdomen).

 

Fever  Pattern

     Try  to  categorize  fever  pattern,  it  will  guide for  further   work  up  &  management.

·        Prolonged  fever

     A  single  illness  in  which  duration  of  fever  exceeds  that  expected for  the  clinical  diagnosis.  

E.g.  >  10  days  for  viral  URTI.  

        >   3  weeks  for  EBV.

·        Recurrent  Fever

       A  single  illness  in  which  fever  &  other  signs  and  symptoms  wax  &  wane.  It  may  be  due  to  incomplete antimicrobial  therapy  (UTI)  due or  different  conditions  developing  with  fever  at  different  intervals  (vial  infections,  DF,  Malaria,  Enteric  fever,  Tuberculosis  etc).

·        Periodic  Fever

     The  term  periodic  fever  is  used  narrowly  to  describe  fever  syndromes  with  a  regular  periodicity.  E.g.  PFAPA  syndrome,  Hyper  IgD  syndrome,  Cyclical  neutropenia  etc.

·        Fever  of  Unknown  Origin  (FUO)

×          Fever  documented  by  a  health  care  provider.

×          Fever  >38.3.  C  at  several  occasions.

×          Cause  remains  unidentified  after  3  weeks  of  evaluation  as  an  outdoor  patient  or  after  a  week  of  evaluation  in  hospital.

·        Factitious  Fever

    Factitious  fever  or  self  iduced  fever  may  be  caused  by  intentional  manipulation  of  the  thermometer  or  injection  of  pyrogenic  material.

·        Double  Quotidian  Fever

    Fever  that  peaks  twice  in  24  hours  is  classically  associated  with  inflammatory  arthritis.

·        Single  isolated  fever spike

×          Not  associated  with  an  infectious  disease.

×          Attributed to  infusion  of  blood  products,  some  drugs,  some  procedures,  manipulation  of  a  catheter  on  a  colonized  or  infected  body  surface.

 

Hyperthermia

·        Fever  >  41.5.  C  (106.7. F)  is  hyperthermia.

·        Most  commonly  due  to heat  exposure,  may  be  due  to  excessive  endogenous  heat  production,  usually  not  due  to  infection.

·        Setting  in  thermoregulatory  center is  unchanged,  heat  production  exceeds  to  capacity  of  heat  loss.

·        Skin  is  hot  &  dry.

·        Antipyretics  don’t  work.  Other  measures  like  to  bring  down  environmental  temperature  by  fan  &  air  condition,  tepid  sponging  etc.

·        Common causes

×          Heat  stroke.

×          Thyrotoxicosis,  pheochromocytoma.

×          Cerebral  haemorrhage,  Hypothalamic  injury.

×          Malignant  Hyperthermia  (Succinyl  Chloride).

×          Drug  induced  (salicylates,  Anticholinergics).

 


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