Basics of Fever
Fever is very common symptom in our daily pediatric practice. Several studies indicate that more than 40% of outdoor patients have complaint of fever & daily innumerable phone calls for the practicing pediatrician are due to fever.
· Definition of fever
× Fever is defined as a rectal temperature ≥ 38. C (100.4. F).
× Our body temperature fluctuates in a defined normal range [(36.6 to 37.9. C) (97.9 to 100.2. F) rectally]. The highest point is reached at early evening & the lowest point is reached in the morning.
× The range of normal temperature is broad, 35.5 to 37.7. C (96 – 100. F).
· Fever should always be measured by thermometer & documented. Palpation of skin by hands to assess body temperature is widely used by parents, it is less accurate & falsely labels children as having fever. To consider fever with warm head & extremities by parents is very common. It should be confirmed by measuring body temperature by thermometer.
· Measurement of Body temperature:
× The measurement of body temperature should reflect the core temperature. The thermometer should be easy, comfortable to use & give rapid results. It should not cause cross infection. It should not be influenced by environmental temperature. It should be safe & cost – effective. There are several devices available at present.
× Available different thermometers
- Mercury clinical thermometer is not recommended due to possibility of mercury poisoning if it is broken accidentally
- Digital thermometer is widely used because of its easy use & safety.
- Infrared thermometer is very useful to screen the people for fever without touching the person. It is safe from cross infection point of view, very useful in epidemics like COVID – 19.
× Axillary temperature
- Axilla should be dry.
- Keep the thermometer in axilla with the bulb of the thermometer toward apex of axilla, the elbow is flexed & the arm is held close to the chest wall.
- Switch on the thermometer & keep the bulb at the apex of dry axilla till its final beep.
- The thermometer should be cleaned with 70% isopropyl alcohol after each used, dried & kept in its container.
- The axillary temperature is 1. C less than the rectal temperature.
× Oral (sublingual) temperature:
- It reflects the temperature of lingual arteries.
- This method can be used in children > 5 years.
- Te oral temperature is 0.5 – 1. C higher than axillary temperature.
× Rectal temperature
- Rectal thermometer is different from clinical thermometer.
- Having rounded, bulbous tip & low reading (30 – 40. C).
- The rectal thermometer should be cleaned with soap & water, wiped dry & then used.
- Water based jelly or lubricant is applied on the tip of the thermometer.
- Put the baby on his back on a firm surface. Hold the baby’s ankles & lift both the legs. Gently, introduce the thermometer in the rectum, directing its tip posteriorly toward the back upto a depth of 2.5 cm. Hold the thermometer till its final beep.
- Due to accidental perforation of rectum, it is not routinely recommended.
× Tympanic Thermometer: The degree of temperature of blood supplying to tympanic membrane & that of hypothalamus are very close to each other. Therefore, it is the ideal location for core temperature estimation. They measure the thermal radiation emitted from the tympanic membrance & the ear canal & are called Infrared Radiation Emission Detectors (IRED).
× Temporal artery thermometer: It reads the infrared heat released by the temporal artery, which runs across the forehead just below the skin. It can be used in 3 months & older children.
Mechanism of fever
Three different mechanisms can produce fever:
· Pyrogens
· Heat production exceeding heat loss
· Defective heat loss.
· Pyrogens
There are two types of pyrogens, Endogenous pyrogens & Exogenous pyrogens.
× Endogenous pyrogens
- Endogenous pyrogens include the cytokines interleukin (IL) – 1 & IL – 6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF) – α, and interferon (IFN) – β & IFN – γ. Stimulated leucocytes & other cells produce lipids (PGE2) that also serve as endogenous pyrogens. PGE2 attaches to the prostaglandin receptors in the hypothalamus to produce the new temperature set point.
- Besides infectious diseases & drugs, malignancy & inflammatory diseases can produce fever through the production of endogenous pyrogens.
× Exogenous pyrogens
- They come from out side the body & consists of mainly infectious pathogens & drugs. Microbes, microbial toxins or other products of microbes are the most common exogenous pyrogens, which stimulate macrophages & other cells to produce endogenous pyrogens.
- Endotoxin is one of the few substances that directly affect thermoregulation in the hypothalamus as well as stimulate endogenous pyrogens release.
Mechanism of fever
Invading exogenous pyrogens
↓
Endogenous pyrognes
(Cytokines)
Act on thermosensitive neurons
in hypothalamus
↓
Upgrade the set point via prostaglandius
↓
Increase in heat production
(muscle contractions - rigors)
& decreasing heat loss
(vasoconstriction - chills)
↓
Rise in body temperature
Till set point
↓
Fever
- Many drugs can cause fever & the mechanism for increasing body temperature varies with the class of drugs.
· Heat production exceeding heat loss
The examples include salicylate poisoning & malignant hyperthermia.
· Defective Heat loss
It may occur in children with ectodermal dysplasia & severe heat exposure.
Types of Fever
The type of fever can provide clues to the underlying etiology. But in this modern time, hardly specific pattern of fever is noted due to self medication (antipyretics) by the parents, misuse of antipyretics (use of irrational drugs & irrational combinations), over use of antimalarials & antibiotics etc. Still, if a specific pattern is observed, it becomes an important clue for the cause of fever.
· Continuous/
It is almost same degree of fever through a mild variation of less than 0.5 C (0.9.F). It is commonly seen in bacterial infections like enteric fever.
· Remittent fever
It is high grade, persistent fever & variation is more than 0.5. C (0.9. F).
· Intermittent fever
Intermittent fever is characterized by febrile periods that are separated by intervals of normal temperature.
× Tertian fever is type of relapsing (intermittent fever), it occus on 1st & 3rd days. Classical example of tertian fever is malaria by plasmodium vivax.
× Quartan fever occurs on 1st & 4th day, which is seen in a case of malaria by plasmodium malariae.
· Hectic fever
Either an intermittent or remittent fever is considered hectic if the temperature range swings widely throughout the day, with a difference of more than 1.4. C between the highest & lowest temperatures. It is considered as characteristic of an abscess, collection of pus some where in body.
· Relapsing fever
This type of intermittent fever that spikes up again after days or weeks of normal temperatures.
· Biphasic fever
Biphasic fever indicates a single illness with 2 distinct periods (camel back fever pattern). Biphasic fever is characteristics of viral fevers, dengue fever, leptospirosis, yellow fever etc.
Fever is a symptom & not disease. The presence of fever indicates inflammatory process in body, may be infective or non - infective. Most of the time, fever is harmless, but may be an initiation of some serious condition.
Why fever is a friend ?
× Increases, WBC response.
× Decreases endotoxin production or its efficacy.
× Activation of B lymphocytes (Humoral immunity).
× Activation of T lymphocytes (cell mediated immunity).
× Enhances phagocytosis, opsonization & complement fixation.
Fever is beneficial immune response.
Red Flag conditions Presenting with Fever
· Altered sensorium / Drowsiness / Irritability / Bulging AF / Signs of meningeal irritation present (CNS infecetion).
· Fever in < 3 months, particularly neonates.
· Poor perfusion (impending shock).
· Increased work of breathing.
· Petechial / Purpura spots (DHF/Sepsis/Meningococcemia).
· Faucial membrane (Diphtheria).
· Immune compromised child.
· Severe Acute Malnutrition.
· Abdominal guarding / rigidity (surgical abdomen).
Fever Pattern
Try to categorize fever pattern, it will guide for further work up & management.
· Prolonged fever
A single illness in which duration of fever exceeds that expected for the clinical diagnosis.
E.g. > 10 days for viral URTI.
> 3 weeks for EBV.
· Recurrent Fever
A single illness in which fever & other signs and symptoms wax & wane. It may be due to incomplete antimicrobial therapy (UTI) due or different conditions developing with fever at different intervals (vial infections, DF, Malaria, Enteric fever, Tuberculosis etc).
· Periodic Fever
The term periodic fever is used narrowly to describe fever syndromes with a regular periodicity. E.g. PFAPA syndrome, Hyper IgD syndrome, Cyclical neutropenia etc.
· Fever of Unknown Origin (FUO)
× Fever documented by a health care provider.
× Fever >38.3. C at several occasions.
× Cause remains unidentified after 3 weeks of evaluation as an outdoor patient or after a week of evaluation in hospital.
· Factitious Fever
Factitious fever or self iduced fever may be caused by intentional manipulation of the thermometer or injection of pyrogenic material.
· Double Quotidian Fever
Fever that peaks twice in 24 hours is classically associated with inflammatory arthritis.
· Single isolated fever spike
× Not associated with an infectious disease.
× Attributed to infusion of blood products, some drugs, some procedures, manipulation of a catheter on a colonized or infected body surface.
Hyperthermia
· Fever > 41.5. C (106.7. F) is hyperthermia.
· Most commonly due to heat exposure, may be due to excessive endogenous heat production, usually not due to infection.
· Setting in thermoregulatory center is unchanged, heat production exceeds to capacity of heat loss.
· Skin is hot & dry.
· Antipyretics don’t work. Other measures like to bring down environmental temperature by fan & air condition, tepid sponging etc.
· Common causes
× Heat stroke.
× Thyrotoxicosis, pheochromocytoma.
× Cerebral haemorrhage, Hypothalamic injury.
× Malignant Hyperthermia (Succinyl Chloride).
× Drug induced (salicylates, Anticholinergics).
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